Dear Mar Shiprim readers, 

Please allow us to introduce a new series, whereby we invite a specialist to provide a primer for their area of expertise, featuring accessible introductory information for scholars who wish to embark on research in a particular sub-field.

We thank Dr. Erica Scarpa from the Institute of Heritage Science of the National Research Council (CNR-ISPC) in Milan for sharing an overview of the archives of Ebla, covering key components of the excavation history, publications, philological conventions, and perhaps most importantly – the significance of the archives when researching ancient West Asian cultures and languages in the third millennium BCE.

We are working to provide more sub-field introductions in the future. Are there areas of study that you think would benefit from a Mar Shiprim primer? Let us know via marshiprim@iaassyriology.com. 

Pavla Rosenstein

Mar Shiprim Editor

 

 

The Archives of Ebla: A Primer

Erica Scarpa

Photograph courtesy of author

1   Introduction – what sparked the Ebla excavations?

The exploration of the civilization that thrived in the ancient city of Ebla (mod. Tell Mardikh) represents a relatively recent area of study. Despite its size, spanning 60 hectares, the site remained largely overlooked until University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’ archaeologist Paolo Matthiae started investigations in 1964. Matthiae’s interest was sparked during a visit to the Aleppo Museum, where he encountered a stone basin, unearthed at Tell Mardikh in the late 1950s by local farmers (Matthiae 1995, 42-43). While archaeological investigations at the site started in 1964, it wasn’t until 1968 that Matthiae and his colleagues were officially able to identify the site as the ancient city of Ebla.

Led by Matthiae and co-directed by Frances Pinnock, the Italian Archaeological Expedition to Syria (MAIS) conducted uninterrupted excavations at the tell from 1964 to 2010, although archaeological research was forced to stop due to the political crisis that began in Syria in spring 2011. A detailed look at the field operations conducted between 1964 and 2010 can be found in Matthiae (2013) and Matthiae (2014–2015).

The Monumental stairway L.2877, located on the Eastern side of the Audience Court L.2752. Photograph courtesy of Dr. Klaus Wagensonner.

1.1 The Archives – size, location and language

The Ebla Royal Archives represent the oldest organized collection of documents in the history of the ancient Near East found in situ. Dated to around 2400 BCE, they consist primarily of the Great Archive (L.2769) and several smaller rooms. However, a crucial distinction must be drawn between two interpretations of the term “archive.” In the first sense, an archive signifies a designated physical space for document storage, such as a room equipped with shelves. The Great Archive (L.2769) and the Small Archive (L.2712) demonstrably fall under this definition (Matthiae 1986; Peyronel 2006). The second interpretation encompasses any organized collection of documents, irrespective of their physical location. Most findings at Ebla cannot be explicitly defined as archives in the first interpretation as outlined above, so epigraphic finds have been divided between primary (archival rooms; spaces for short-term consultation) and secondary (tablets scattered in rooms for unclear purposes), as outlined in Matthiae 1986, 57-58 and Peyronel 2006, 260-261.

The documents are written in an archaic northern Semitic language, which has been studied extensively since its discovery in 1974 (D’Agostino 1990; Krebernik 1996; Huehnergard and Woods 2004; Catagnoti 2012 and Tonietti 2013; 2018), although full understanding of the grammar and morphology is a recent development. Additionally, the administrative terminology heavily relies on Sumerian logograms: while Sumerian was most likely not spoken in the region, scribes adopted its writing system. This combination of languages, with its inherent lexical shifts, creates challenges in interpreting the texts.

North-eastern corner of the Audience Court L.2752. The room before the columns on the right is Great Archive L.2769. Photograph courtesy of Dr. Klaus Wagensonner.

1.1.1  The Discoveries – key artefacts and texts

The first cuneiform tablets were found in 1974 within Room L.2586 at the bottom of a jar, situated north of the Monumental stairway in the so-called Royal Palace G (Matthiae 2008, 64; Archi 2019, 6). This initial find consisted of 42 lenticular tablets, primarily documenting silver and gold objects. Notably, the list of Ebla’s rulers (TM.74.G.120, published in Archi 1988, 213) belongs to this group. In 1975, excavations unearthed two significant archives: the Great Archive (L.2769) and the Small Archive (L.2712). News of the discovery garnered international attention (1, 2) and revolutionized our understanding of the ancient Near East. The Small Archive L.2712, found in August 1975, contained roughly 1,000 excavation numbers representing an estimated 211 complete tablets. These documents, primarily recording food rations, date to the final months before Ebla’s destruction. While Milano published 115 tablets (Milano 1990), approximately 170 remain unpublished.

Less than a month later, a significant discovery of over 15,000 tablets, fragments, and chips occurred within Room L.2769. Estimates suggest that the Great Archive originally housed between 4,000 and 5,000 tablets (Matthiae 2008, 80; Bonechi 2013, 248). These materials primarily comprised administrative records concerning monthly textile distributions and annual metal accounts, alongside lexical texts, literary compositions, and approximately 60 diplomatic documents (for an assessment, see Scarpa 2023, 11–14).

A small number of additional fragments were recovered from Room L.2769 in 1976. The same year also saw the discovery of roughly 100 documents (reconstructed from 655 fragments) within Vestibule L.2875, adjoining the Great Archive. Twenty of these documents, primarily letters, have been published by Catagnoti and Fronzaroli (2020).

The excavation of the Trapezoidal Archive (L.2764) took place in 1976, yielding approximately 600 excavation numbers. These documents primarily concern livestock deliveries and remain unpublished. Finally, 1976 also saw the discovery of 22 documents found on burnt wooden planks within the center of the Audience Court L.2752. All these documents have been published by Sollberger (1986) and re-edited by Pettinato (1996). 

Occasional discoveries occurred from 2004 to 2010, culminating in the finding of the final group of tablets in 2004 within storeroom L.8496 (Archi 2015). For a plan of the find spots within the site, see Porter (2012, 200).

2   Toolkit – approaches within Ebla studies

2.1 Good Practices for Quoting Sources and Transliteration Conventions

Due to circumstances of discovery, the Ebla tablets exhibit unique characteristics when it comes to publication, citation, and joining. A key factor is that all tablets were found at Ebla, leading to the general assumption of local production. However, some diplomatic documents hint at local copies of foreign texts, suggesting a more nuanced picture (Bonechi 2016, 6–7). It must be noted that archaeologists adopted a single excavation number system for all finds at Ebla. This system, exemplified by TM.75.G.12345 (Tell Mardikh, year 75, sector G, object number 12345), does not differentiate between tablets, fragments, or other artifacts. Consequently, the excavation number alone offers no clue about the object’s nature (Scarpa 2023, 20). Each complete tablet or single fragment present an excavation number: the Ebla sources are most often quoted by their publication number (e.g ARET I, 1), but good practice would be to also refer to the excavation number (e.g ARET I, 1 = TM.75.G.2525). This is recommended practice, since the publication number does not provide information on potential joins (e.g, ARET XX 7 = TM.75.G.1731+TM.75.G.2498).

Sources cited only by excavation number are likely unpublished. For example, TM.75.G.2396 (studied by Pettinato and D’Agostino 1994) was later published as ARET XIII 7 by Pelio Fronzaroli (2003). Therefore, when citing unpublished sources, it is advisable to verify their publication status. This verification can be readily accomplished by consulting the excavation number within the “Concordances” sub-section of the EbDA database (more on this later).

During the excavation post-processing phase or subsequent years, dozens of fragments have been successfully joined. However, the sheer volume of discovered materials necessitates ongoing review, as published incomplete tablets may subsequently be found to join with additional fragments. This is the case of ARET I 2 = TM.75.G.10016 + ARET IV 23 = TM.75.G.1886 (Bonechi 2020). In addition, several joins have been identified based on linguistic features, rather than physical features (Bonechi 2023). For typologies of different joins that can be found in Ebla sources, see Di Filippo, Maiocchi and Scarpa 2023, 139-142.

2.1.1  Editorial conventions

Editorial conventions employed in editions may vary depending on the scholar, with specific notations reflecting the state of document preservation. Broken text is typically indicated by square brackets, […]. In lacunae, the reading of certain signs can be confidently proposed based on parallels. For instance, in the sequence [x x BU]-DI [N] ku₃:bar₆, at least two signs (marked ‘x’) likely preceded the term BU-DI (“toggle-pin”), while a numeral ([N]) denoted its value in silver shekels (ku₃:bar₆). Half upper brackets signify damaged but still legible signs, as exemplified by ^dingirKU-ra-⸢ma⸣-i-da (a personal name). Notably, the Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla series occasionally utilizes parentheses ‘()’ to denote signs illegible in photographs, as all documents within these volumes were edited based on photographic reproductions rather than the original artifacts.

2.1.2  Transliteration

Note that the following transliteration conventions are standard in the field:

• Eblaite is typically denoted in lowercase italics, such as PN i-bi₂-zi-kir (Ibbi-zikir), GN ma-ri₂^ki (Mari).
• Semitograms (also referred to as Akkadograms or Eblaitograms; see Conti 1993, 106-107) are transliterated in uppercase italics, for example, MA-LIK-TUM (“queen”), GU₂-BAR (kubārum, a unit of measure for arids), or LI-IM (liʾmum, 1,000). Although this convention has not been universally adopted in text editions, some scholars use it in their writings.
• Sumerian is represented in lowercase, like šu-mu-tag₄ (“to deliver”) or GN kiš^ki (Kiš).
• Signs of uncertain reading or instances of unusual spelling are indicated in uppercase, e.g., DU.DU or ^dingirʾa₃(NI)-da-bal_x(KUL), or small caps, e.g. GIŠ-geštug-la₂. Occasionally, uncertain signs likely bearing a Semitic reading are transcribed in uppercase italics; Pomponio (2008, 2013) adopts this convention, as seen in PN EN-zi-da-ar, where EN, according to him, carries a syllabic value. However, this may potentially lead to confusion with Semitograms.
• Phonetic transcriptions are represented in lowercase within slashes, such as /battāqu daynim/, the phonetic transcription of the entry 1327’ of the bilingual lexical list known as Vocabolario di Ebla (di-ku₅ / ba-da-qu₂ da-ne-u[m], “to decide a litigation”). 

2.2 Chronology

The absolute chronology of Ebla during the Age of the Archives remains under debate, though most evidence points to the mid- to late-3rd millennium BCE. Archaeological and textual evidence generally places the period between approximately 2400 and 2250 BCE. Radiocarbon analyses on sixteen short-lived plant samples from Royal Palace G and Building P4 suggest the city’s destruction occurred sometime between 2367 and 2293 BCE (Calcagnile, Quarta, and D’Elia 2013). However, the precise dating and its alignment with other contemporary events can vary depending on scholarly interpretations and specific lines of evidence.

The destruction of Ebla, a terminus ante quem for dating the Archives, remains a major point of debate. Scholars disagree on the perpetrators, with some attributing it to Sargon or Narām-Sîn of Akkad based on their claims of conquering Armanum and Ebla. Others propose Mari as the perpetrator. Durand (2012) suggests a more specific scenario, identifying a Mari šakkanakku acting under Sargon’s orders.

The interpretation that Ebla’s destruction was caused by Sargon relies on Sargon’s claims in several royal inscriptions that the god Dagan granted him Mari, Yarmuti, and Ebla. One of these inscriptions is contained in an Old Babylonian Sammeltafeln, of which at least two copies have survived. One is Ni3200, and the second, CBS 13972 + CBS 14545, was unearthed during the Babylonian Expedition to Nippur I-IV, which took place between 1888 and 1900. This tablet, reconstructed from numerous fragments, contains 22 texts together with brief captions. Originally attached to the monuments kept in the courtyard of the Ekur Temple in Nippur, the inscriptions were commissioned by the kings of Agade to commemorate their conquests. While one of these inscriptions mentions Ebla, it doesn’t necessarily confirm its destruction by Sargon. Narām-Sîn, Sargon’s grandson, also left several inscriptions boasting that he was “the mighty king of the four quarters, conqueror of Armānum and Ebla” on a steatite vessel-shaped object, on a metal bowl (IMJ 74.49.99), and on a pedestal.

Matthiae (2008, 96–97) explains this impasse, suggesting that the importance of Ebla and its destruction by Sargon made the city a well-known reference point in the Syrian territory for people living in Babylonia. Narām-Sîn technically defeated only Armānum, but mentioned Ebla in his inscription because its name was well-known due to his grandfather’s endeavors. In 2003, Archi and Biga offered new evidence substantiating Sargon’s direct involvement in the destruction of Ebla and added further insight into the topic. First, they observed that Kiš’s prominence among Babylonia’s most important cities suggests that Agade was not yet at the peak of its power. Kiš was certainly independent until Ebla’s final days. The peak of Ebla’s alliance with Kiš was reached when the wedding of the Eblaite princess Kešdut with its king was sealed.

The scribes of the Archives did not consistently use year names to date their documents. Monthly accounts of textiles only mention the month, while only a few texts, like the income records (mu-DU), include a specific year reference. To establish a chronological sequence, Archi and Biga (2003) cross-referenced the annual accounts of metal (AAM) with other sources. This timeline aligns with the mandated terms of the viziers, who assisted the king (see image below).

Figure 2.2: After Archi – Biga 2003 and Archi 2016.

2.3 Published Editions

The primary source for studying Ebla comes from two publication series:

– Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi (ARET), Rome: This series, currently containing nineteen volumes, publishes edited texts from the Ebla royal archives.

– Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla (MEE), Rome and Naples: active from 1979 to 2001, this series published nine volumes of Eblaite texts.

There is minimal overlap between the two series. Notably, most lexical documents, while originally published in MEE, are planned for updated editions within the ARET series (Archi 2022). Several sources have been published in articles and conference proceedings, such as TM.75.G.1679 (Biga 2018, 65–67).

The Ebla Digital Archives Project (EbDA), launched in 2007, offers a comprehensive digital resource for researchers studying the ancient city of Ebla. It includes digital editions of most of the sources published up to date (Di Filippo et al. 2018). Users can explore the transliterations in two ways: by publication number for specific references, or by querying the entire corpus for broader searches. The database also facilitates targeted searches for personal names, geographical names, and month names. These terms are flagged during data entry, allowing users to search within these specific categories. For example, entering “da-mu” in the PN category would return a list of all personal names containing that term.

Additionally, the EbDA database incorporates an autocomplete feature that suggests potential search terms based on those already documented in the database. This feature helps refine searches and navigate the vast collection of sources.

Among the tools of the trade: Matthiae’s most recent and comprehensive overview of the site (Matthiae 2010; English translation in Matthiae 2020), the text editions (Pomponio 2013) and the complete bibliography (Scarpa 2017).

2.3.1  Administrative Records

• Pettinato, Giovanni. 1980. Testi amministrativi della biblioteca L.2769. Parte I. Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 2. Napoli.
• Edzard, Dietz Otto. 1981. Verwaltungstexte verschiedenen Inhalts aus dem Archiv L.2769. Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi II. Roma.
• Archi, Alfonso, and Maria Giovanna Biga. 1982. Testi amministrativi di vario contenuto (Archivio L.2769: TM.75.G.3000-4101). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi III. Roma.
• Biga, Maria Giovanna, and Lucio Milano. 1984. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni di tessuti (Archivio L. 2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi IV. Roma.
• Archi, Alfonso. 1988. Testi amministrativi: registrazioni di metalli e tessuti (Archivio L.2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi VII. Roma.
• Mander, Pietro. 1990. Administrative Texts of the Archive L.2769. Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 10. Roma.
• D’Agostino, Franco. 1996. Testi amministrativi di Ebla: Archivio L.2769. Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 7. Roma.
• Waetzoldt, Hartmut. 2001. Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungstexte aus Ebla Archiv L.2769. Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 12. Roma.
• Lahlouh, Mohammed, and Amalia Catagnoti. 2006. Testi amministrativi di vario contenuto (Archivio L.2769: TM.75.G.4102-6050). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XII. Roma.
• Pomponio, Francesco. 2008. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni mensili di tessuti, periodo di Arrugum (Archivio L.2769). Parte I. Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XV/1. Roma.
• Pomponio, Francesco. 2013. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni mensili di tessuti, periodo di Arrugum (Archivio L.2769). Parte II. Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XV/2. Roma.
• Archi, Alfonso. 2018. Administrative Texts: Allotments of Clothing for the Palace Personnel (Archive L. 2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XX. Wiesbaden.
• Samir, Imad. 2019. Wirtschaftstexte: Monatliche Buchführung über Textilien aus Ibriums Amtszeit (Archiv L. 2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XIX. Wiesbaden.
• Archi, Alfonso. 2023. Annual Documents of Deliveries (mu-DU) to the Central Administration: Archive L.2769. Archivi Reali di Ebla. Testi, XIV. Wiesbaden.
• Archi, Alfonso, and Gabriella Spada. 2023. Annual Documents of the Metal Expenditures (è) from Minister Ibrium’s Period (Archive L. 2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla. Testi, XXI. Wiesbaden.

2.3.2  Lexical Texts

• Pettinato, Giovanni. 1981. Testi lessicali monolingui della biblioteca L.2769. Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 3. Napoli.
• Pettinato, Giovanni. 1982. Testi lessicali bilingui della biblioteca L.2769. Parte I: Traslitterazione dei testi e ricostruzione del VE. Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 4. Napoli.
• Picchioni, Sergio A. 1997. Testi lessicali monolingui “éš-bar-kinx.” Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla 15. Roma.

2.3.3  Diplomatic and Others

• Edzard, Dietz Otto. 1984. Hymnen, Beschwörungen und Verwandtes (aus dem Archiv L.2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi V. Roma.
• Fronzaroli, Pelio. 1993. Testi rituali della regalità (L.2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XI. Roma.
• Fronzaroli, Pelio. 2003. Testi di cancelleria: I rapporti con le città (Archivio L.2769). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XIII. Roma.
• Catagnoti, Amalia, and Pelio Fronzaroli. 2010. Testi di cancelleria: il re e i funzionari (L.2769), Parte I. Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi XVI. Roma.
• Catagnoti, Amalia, and Pelio Fronzaroli. 2020. Testi di cancelleria. Il re e i funzionari: Archivio L. 2875. Parte II. Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi, XVIII. Wiesbaden.

2.3.4  Food allotment

• Milano, Lucio. 1990. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni di prodotti alimentari (Archivio L.2712 – Parte I). Archivi Reali di Ebla, Testi IX. Roma. (Reviews: Catagnoti 1997)

2.4 Reference Works, Repertoires, and Dictionaries

2.4.1  Dictionaries

No dictionary of Eblaite is currently available. The project of the Thesaurus Inscriptionum Eblaicarum (TIE) started in 1995 came to a halt after its fourth volume in 2005 (Pettinato and D’Agostino 1995, 1996, 1998; Pettinato and Seminara 2005). Only volumes from letter A to D are presently available. The most easily accessible resource are the glossaries of the ARET volumes, with the twelfth (Lahlouh and Catagnoti 2006) being the most comprehensive although not necessarily the most recent. Note, however, that ARET XX, (Archi 2018), ARET XIV (Archi 2023), and ARET XXI (Archi and Spada 2023) have an English glossary, while ARET XIX (Samir 2019) has been published in German.

2.4.2  Grammar and Morphology

The grammar published by Amalia Catagnoti (2012) is a comprehensive overview of Eblaite language, including a detailed bibliography. For a brief introduction, see Catagnoti (2020; 2022) and Kogan and Krebernik (2021).

2.4.3  Palaeographies and Sign Lists

A palaeography for the administrative record has been published by Catagnoti (2013). A sign list based on lexical documents by Pietro Mander is included in MEE 3 (Pettinato 1981) as an Appendix. Further works have been conducted by Paoletti (2015, 2016) and Sallaberger (2001). For a comprehensive sign list, Borger’s work (2004) is considered the best resource, particularly for understanding the archaic syllabic values of the signs.

2.4.4  Bibliographies

The most complete bibliography is The City of Ebla. A Complete Bibliography of Archaeological and Textual Remains (Scarpa 2017). Published in 2017, the list is currently updated regularly on the Ebla Digital Archives Project. On previous works, see pp.14-15, ‘Previous Eblaite Bibliographies’. Most occurrences are also available in a Zotero open library.

Another bibliography, published in 1984, is The Tablets of Ebla. Concordance and Bibliography (Beld, Hallo, and Michalowski 1984): the book offers a list of all published tablets up to 1983 with concordances between inventory and museum numbers, as well as a related bibliographic index. Davidović (1987) offers a detailed description of the book’s content in her review.

2.4.5  Prosopographies

The main prosopographical resource is the Prosopography of Ebla project of the University of Florence: at present volumes B, G, and K have been published. The site includes several prosopographies, referred to:

•     Ibrium’s wives and female relatives;
•     Ibbi-zikir’s wives and female relatives;
•     wet-nurses, ga-du₈;
•     acrobats, ḪUB₂(.KI);
•     ib(-ib);
•     gatekeepers, KID₂.SAG;
•     musical performers/singers, nar;
•     dancers, NE.DI;
•     smiths, simug;
•     collectors, ur₄. 

In addition, ARES I (Archi, Biga, and Milano 1988) includes prosopographies referring to the following social groups: royal sons (Scarpa 2021a, 2021b), Ibrium’s sons, Ibbi-zikir’s sons, royal daughters, Ibrium’s daughters, Ibbi-zikir’s daughters, Ibrium’s brothers, court ladies (Tonietti 1989b, 1990; Scarpa 2021c), Ibrium’s wives, Ibbi-zikir’s wives, judges, overseer of the kunga₂ and IGI.NITA (see also Archi 2020), musicians (see also Tonietti 1988, 1989a, 1997).

2.4.6  Onomastics

The first comprehensive study on onomastics is Pagan (1998). However, subsequent publications overturned many of his interpretations. The Prosopography of Ebla project includes interpretations for all PNs listed in the volumes. An important resource is also Krebernik’s work on personal names (1988).

2.4.7  Repertoires

Two geographical repertoires are available: ARES II (Archi, Piacentini, and Pomponio 1993) and RGTC 12/1 (Bonechi 1993). Both have been published in 1993; ARES I contains also references to unpublished documents. The EbDA database offers a research filter for GNs.

A repertoire for divine names is Pomponio and Xella (1997).

2.4.8  Varia

Other useful resources include:

• Baldacci’s work (1992) compiles all quoted passages from unpublished documents related to textiles up to 1993. Bonechi’s review (1997) provides further insights.
• Archi (2002, pp.187-199) offers an index of jewels and precious items associated with women’s marriages and funerals, potentially providing context for textile use.
• Pasquali (2005) provides a detailed account of tools, techniques, and objects used in textile production.
• Pasquali’s earlier work (1997) delves specifically into the terminology used for textiles within the administrative records.

3   Why Should you Engage in Eblaite Studies?

The Ebla archives offer an unparalleled window into the world of ancient Near Eastern record-keeping during the 3rd millennium BCE. These well-preserved archives allow us to investigate questions that are usually out of reach when studying cuneiform archives, which are often fragmentary and lack their original context.

Prior to the discovery of the Ebla archives, the prevailing scholarly view held that Syria lacked exposure to writing systems before the Mari Archives (18th century BCE). This case exemplifies the perils of relying solely on an argumentum e silentio. The Ebla discovery not only shattered this misconception but also revealed a far more active role for the region corresponding to modern Syria within the cultural sphere of the ancient Near East during the mid-3rd millennium BCE. Furthermore, Ebla’s story extends beyond its physical walls. Trade routes and cultural connections undoubtedly linked Ebla to other centers in the region. Future research should delve deeper into these connections, providing a more holistic understanding of the city’s place within the wider network of the ancient Near East.

 

Please note that this primer is also available on Zenodo and will be expanded and updated as a permanent project in the future.

References

Archi, Alfonso, ed. 1988. Eblaite Personal Names and Semitic Name-giving: Papers of a Symposium Held in Rome, July 15-17, 1985. ARES I. Roma: Missione archeologica italiana in Siria.

———. 2002. “Jewels for the Ladies of Ebla.” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie 92: 161–99. doi:10.1515/zava.2002.92.2.161.

———. 2015. “The Tablets of the Throne Room of the Royal Palace G of Ebla.” Archiv für Orientforschung 53: 9–18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44810781.

———. 2018. Administrative Texts: Allotments of Clothing for the Palace Personnel (Archive L. 2769). ARET XX. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

———. 2019. “‘Palace’ at Ebla: An Emic Approach.” In Der Palast im antiken und islamischen Orient: 9. Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, 30. März – 1. April 2016, Frankfurt am Main, edited by Dirk Wicke, 1–33. Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellaschaft 9. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

———. 2020. “The Overseers of the Teams of Mules and Asses, ugula surx-BAR.AN/IGI.NITA.” AsiAnA 2: 45–51. doi:10.13128/asiana-782.

———. 2022. “Publication of the Archives of Ebla: A Report on the Work in Progress.” Studia Eblaitica 8: 29–41.

———. 2023. Annual Documents of Deliveries (mu-DU) to the Central Administration: Archive L.2769. ARET XIV. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Archi, Alfonso, and Gabriella Spada. 2023. Annual Documents of the Metal Expenditures (è) from Minister Ibrium’s Period (Archive L. 2769). ARET XXI. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Archi, Alfonso, and Maria Giovanna Biga. 2003. “A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 55: 1–44. doi:10.2307/3515951.

Archi, Alfonso, Maria Giovanna Biga, and Lucio Milano. 1988. “Studies in Eblaite Prosopography.” In Eblaite Personal Names and Semitic Name-Giving. Papers of a Symposium Held in Rome July 15-17, 1985, edited by Alfonso Archi, 205–306. ARES I. Roma.

Archi, Alfonso, Patrizia Piacentini, and Francesco Pomponio. 1993. I nomi di luogo dei testi di Ebla. ARES II. Roma: Università degli Studi di Roma ‘La Sapienza’.

Baldacci, Massimo. 1992. Partially Published Eblaite Texts. Series Minor 40. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli.

Beld, Scott G., William W. Hallo, and Piotr Michalowski. 1984. The Tablets of Ebla. Concordance and Bibliography. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

Biga, Maria Giovanna. 2018. “Gioielli per una fanciulla alla corte di Ebla.” In A Oriente del Delta. Scritti sull’Egitto ed il Vicino Oriente Antico in onore di Gabriella Scandone Matthiae, edited by Agnese Vacca, Sabrina Pizzimenti, and Maria Gabriella Micale, 63–77. Contributi e Materiali di Archeologia Orientale 18. Roma: Scienze e lettere.

Bonechi, Marco. 1993. I nomi geografici dei testi di Ebla. Répertoire géographique des textes cunéiformes 12/1. Wiesbaden: Reichert.

———. 1997. “Review of Partially Published Eblaite Texts by Masimo Baldacci.” Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 91: 176–78. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23281913.

———. 2013. “Ebla.” In Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, edited by D. C. Allison, V. Leppin, C. Seow, H. Spieckermann, B. D. Walfish, and E. Ziolkowski, 248–54. Berlin; Boston.

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